Lesson 2.1 Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism in Digital Education
| Strona: | |
| Kurs: | Digital Education |
| Książka: | Lesson 2.1 Behaviorism, Cognitivism, and Constructivism in Digital Education |
| Wydrukowane przez użytkownika: | Svečio paskyra |
| Data: | środa, 20 maja 2026, 02:47 |
1. Introduction
There are many theories associated with education. Learning theories describe the nature of learning, providing multiple perspectives on when, how, and why various types of learning happen. Instructional-design theories provide guidelines in the practices that can facilitate learning based on scientific learning principles implied by learning theories.
When referring to digital education and its advantages to learners, four theories can help us to understand how to go about teaching online:
- behaviourism,
- cognitivism,
- constructivism and
- connectivism.
It can be useful to bear in mind the general ideas behind them when considering moving into the online teaching environment (OU, 2017).
Video 1: Unlocking Digital Education: 4 Key Learning Theories [Duration 1:48 minutes, created by the course authors]
“Learning and developmental theories are useful for understanding why an instructional-design theory works, and, in areas where no instructional-design exists, they can help an educator to invent new methods or select known instructional methods that might work”. (Reigeluth, 1999, p.13).
Video 2: The 5 Learning Theories [9:02]
2. Behaviourism
Burrhus Frederic Skinner (1968) and Edward Lee Thorndike (1928) were the main proponents of behaviourism. They examined how behaviour is linked to experience and reward.
Knowledge and skills are defined by behaviourism as observable and quantifiable behaviours. Learning is the act of forming connections between an external stimulus, an external response, and an external consequence (i.e., reinforcement or punishment) in order to accumulate information (behaviours or performances).
For instance, if students answer correctly on their vocabulary quiz (an external stimulus) and receive 100% of the possible score, they receive a tiny reward (reinforcement). Recalling facts and automatically carrying out a particular task are two examples of behaviours that can be explained by behaviourism. These behaviours can be reduced to a small number of perceptual or motor skills (Nathan & Sawyer, 2022; Ertmer & Newby, 2013).
- Task analysis to determine the behavioral objectives, instructional sequence (progressing from simple to more complex levels of performance), and instructional cues (i.e., external stimulus and consequences);
- Design of instructional cues and reinforcements for eliciting desired responses and strengthening correct responses with corrective feedback;
- Learner analysis with pre-assessment to determine learners’ performance on prerequisite learning;
- Design of practice situation that prompts the association of stimuli and response in diverse performance settings;
- Design of assessment that examines learners’ reproductive rate of desired responses.
3. Cognitivism
Cognitivism largely replaced behaviourism and came to prominence in the late 20th century. This theory concentrated on the organisation of knowledge, information processing and decision-making. David Ausubel (1960) and Jerome Bruner (1966) were the main proponents of cognitivism. Bruner pursued the notion that learners should be given opportunities to discover for themselves relationships that are inherent in the learning material, a teaching technique he named ‘scaffolding’.
According to cognitivism, knowledge is the mental schema that students use to map the outside world. Knowledge is kept in long-term memory and can be retrieved to process external information in working memory. Declarative, procedural, and conditional knowledge are some of the fundamental building blocks of knowledge that can be broken down and simplified. Learning is the process of applying different cognitive and metacognitive strategies to encode, organise, analyse, and structure external information in order to create a new schema or modify an existing schema that is retained in memory. The boundaries for recognising the similarities and differences of different information during learning processes and the transfer of learning processes were created by the past knowledge of the learners.
Video 3: Cognitivism [3:44]
Compared to behaviourism, the mental processes and structures - perception, thinking, language, and reasoning - are more suited to describe complex kinds of learning since they are fundamental to people's attention, memory, and idea development. Learning organised complex knowledge that can be broken down, standardised, and analysed into an algorithmic or rule-based system is best explained by cognitivism. For instance, to learn programming, a learner could gradually become proficient in each of the sub-tasks (such as understanding syntax, mastering loops and conditionals, implementing functions, and so forth) and then put all of the sub-tasks together to complete a complex program or application.
The goal of cognivist instruction is to transfer knowledge as effectively and efficiently as feasible through processing processes. The main elements that account for learning include structured instructional components, learners' prior knowledge and learning techniques to approach learning and prevent forgetting, and learning motivation. Among the cognitivist approaches to instructional design are:
- Task/knowledge analysis to identify and illustrate the prerequisite relationships which results in hierarchical structures of knowledge which results in hierarchical structures of learning content and decomposition of instruction;
- Learner analysis to determine learners’ predisposition to learning (i.e., how do learners activate, maintain, and direct their learning) and to bridge between learners’ prior knowledge and the target learning;
- Design of information bridge to facilitate recall of prerequisite skill and draw analogies between prior knowledge and target knowledge;
- Information elaboration and chunking that structure, organize, and sequence information to facilitate optimal processing;
- Design of practice and assessment to provide informative feedback that directs student’s information processing, self-regulated learning, and knowledge transfer;
- Design of learning environment that actively involves learners in the learning process and supports learners’ self-regulated learning and motivation maintenance.
Educational designers should be mindful of the limitations of cognitivism when examining the learner-centered approach to complex learning (i.e., learning and the meaning of knowledge vary across contexts and cases). They should also stress that each learner is a unique constructive learning agent rather than a computer-like information processor.
In an online teaching environment, this could manifest itself in the teacher providing regular and focused support to each learner in the early stages of the course, but making less frequent supporting interventions as the learner begins to act successfully by themselves. Ausubel’s work in this area would suggest that it is better for the teacher to provide some materials in advance, that allow the learner to ‘organise’ their learning approach prior to them accessing the actual course materials, so that they have already developed much of the skillset they will need to successfully undertake the course (OU, 2017).
4. Constructivism
Constructivism is typically categorised based on how learners interact with the external environment to create meaning and construct knowledge:
- Cognitive constructivism: By seeking equilibrium in the cognitive conflict, knowledge is created during the assimilation and accommodation processes. Through experimental procedures and active reflection, like inquiry-based learning, the cognitive conflict is overcome. Learning is an individual process in which ideas come before words in order to make sense of what has been experienced in the real world and to integrate new information into existing knowledge. Learners' ability to make sense of new events and concepts is limited by their prior knowledge and cognitive capacity.
Assimilation refers to the process of brining in new knowledge to the existing schemas.
Accommodation refers to the process of modifying the existing schemas to accommodate the new information or knowledge.
Cognitive conflict refers to the differences between encountered experiences and presented information.
- Social constructivism: Language use, meaning negotiation, and active reflection all play a role in the mediation of knowledge formation through social interaction. Thinking and language, especially inner speech, are essential components of learning and have an impact on the process of learning. More experienced people can scaffold learners' learning in the Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP) throughout social contact and culturally structured activities to help learners obtain cognitive progress that they could not attain on their own.
Zone of Proximal Development (ZDP) is a zone where learning could occur with learners’ individual efforts and the assistance of more knowledgeable others.
5. Connectivism
Connectivism is a contemporary learning theory that posits effective learning requires the integration of diverse thoughts, theories, and information, facilitated by modern technology. It emphasizes the critical role of digital tools in contemporary education, acknowledging the boundless opportunities for learning afforded by our interconnected era. A fundamental aspect of connectivism is the encouragement of group dynamics. Collaboration and open dialogue among learners enable the sharing of diverse perspectives, thereby enhancing decision-making, problem-solving, and the understanding of complex concepts (Kurt, 2023).
Moreover, connectivism advocates for decentralized learning, asserting that education is not confined to the individual but extends to platforms such as social media, online communities, and extensive informational databases.
The origins of connectivism can be traced to the work of academics George Siemens and Stephen Downes in 2005. Their seminal publications illuminated the profound impact of technology on education. They argued that the digital revolution has not only increased information accessibility but also accelerated the speed at which it is disseminated.
While both Siemens and Downes remain strong proponents of connectivism, their focus areas slightly diverge. Siemens has largely concentrated on exploring the social dimensions and interactions underpinning the theory. On the other hand, Downes has delved deeper into the realm of artificial intelligence, considering how both non-human entities and machine-based tools can facilitate learning.
This theory takes into account the availability of a plethora of information on the web, which can be shared around the world almost instantaneously with the rise of social networking. Connectivism draws on chaos theory’s recognition of ‘everything being connected to everything else’. It also draws on networking principles, and theories of complexity and self-organisation, and is built on a notion that ‘the connections that enable us to learn more are more important than our current state of knowing’ (Siemens, 2005).
Unlike the other theories presented before, connectivism is ‘a learning theory for the digital age’ (Siemens, 2005). It is also newer and less established in terms of a body of research. Whether or not you agree with its arguments, two very important questions for this course are prompted by connectivism: has the internet fundamentally changed what learning is? (OU, 2017).
6. Conclusions
In the realm of educational psychology, understanding how individuals learn is paramount. Various learning theories have emerged over time, each offering unique insights into the mechanisms behind learning.
Behaviourism posits that learning is fundamentally a change in behavior elicited by external stimuli. This theory emphasizes observable and measurable behaviors, focusing on how individuals respond to different stimuli through processes like reinforcement and punishment. Classical and operant conditioning are central to this perspective, illustrating how associations between stimuli and responses can shape behavior over time.
In contrast, cognitivism delves into the internal processes that underpin learning. Influential theorists like Jean Piaget and Jerome Bruner have highlighted the significance of mental processes such as thinking, memory, and problem-solving. According to cognitivism, learning involves the acquisition and organization of knowledge. The theory underscores the importance of schemas, which are mental structures that help individuals categorize and store information. This perspective shifts the focus from external behaviors to the cognitive processes occurring within the learner's mind.
Constructivism, with key contributions from Lev Vygotsky and Jean Piaget, views learning as an active, constructive process. This theory posits that learners actively build new knowledge on the foundation of their previous experiences. Constructivism emphasizes the role of social interaction and cultural context, suggesting that learning is deeply embedded in social environments. Concepts such as the Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) and scaffolding are crucial, highlighting how learners progress through guided interaction and support.
Connectionism, presents learning as the formation of connections or associations between stimuli and responses. This theory has a strong focus on the neural underpinnings of learning, suggesting that the brain’s neural networks adapt based on experience. Modern interpretations of connectionism incorporate neural network models and the concept of synaptic plasticity, explaining learning at a biological level.
Each of these theories - behaviourism, cognitivism, constructivism, and connectionism—offers a distinct lens through which to understand the complex processes of learning. Together, they provide a comprehensive framework that informs educational practices and research, helping educators to better facilitate learning in diverse contexts.
7. References
Ausubel, D.P. (1960). Use of advance organisers in the learning and retention of meaningful material. Journal of Educational Psychology, 51 (5), 267–72.
Beasley, J.G. and Beck, D.E. (2017). Defining Differentiation in Cyber Schools: What Online Teachers Say. TechTrends, 61 (6), 550–59.
Bruner, J.S. (1966). Toward a Theory of Instruction, Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press.
Donovan, J., Mader, C.E. and Shinsky, J. (2006). Constructive student feedback: Online vs. traditional course evaluations. Journal of Interactive Online Learning, 5 (3), 283–96.
Ertmer, P. A., & Newby, T. J. (2013). Behaviorism, Cognitivism, Constructivism: Comparing Critical Features From an Instructional Design Perspective. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 26(2), 43–71. https://doi.org/10.1002/piq.21143
Great School (2020). Partnership. The Elements of Effective Instruction.
Jones, M.H. and Gallen, A-M. (2016). Peer observation, feedback and reflection for development of practice in synchronous online teaching. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 53 (6),616–26.
Kurt, S. (2023). Connectivism Learning Theory. Educational Technologyhttps://educationaltechnology.net/connectivism-learning-theory/
Nathan, M. J., & Sawyer, R. K. (2022). Foundations of the Learning Sciences. In R. K. Sawyer (Ed.), The Cambridge Handbook of the Learning Sciences (3rd ed., pp. 27–52). Cambridge University Press.https://doi.org/10.1017/9781108888295.004Open University (2017). Take your teaching online. The Open University.
Piaget, J. (1957) ‘The Child and Modern Physics’, Scientific American, vol. 196, no. 3, pp. 46–51.
Skinner, B.F. (1968) The Technology of Teaching, New York, NY, Appleton-Century- Crofts.
Thorndike, E.L., Bregman, E.O., Tilton, J.W. and Woodyard, E. (1928) Adult Learning, New York, NY, Macmillan.
Siemens, G. (2005) ‘Connectivism: A Learning Theory for the Digital Age’, International Journal of Instructional Technology and Distance Learning, vol. 2, no. 1 [Online]. http://www.itdl.org/journal/jan_05/article01.htm
Vygotsky, L.S. (1986) Thought and Language (trans. from Russian and revised and edited by A. Kozulin), Cambridge, MA, MIT Press.
Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning as a social system. Systems Thinker, 9(5), 2-3.